Evaluation of the host specificity of Eimeria uekii and Eimeria raichoi for Japanese rock ptarmigans by oocyst transfer to taxonomically related birds.

Eimeria spp. are protozoan parasites that are commonly found in a broad range of vertebrate hosts. These parasites generally exhibit strict host specificity, but some Eimeria spp. can infect groups of closely related species such as species within a genus or family. Compared with Eimeria spp. that infect livestock, limited information is available about such infections in wild animals including data on host specificity, virulence, and prevalence. The Japanese rock ptarmigan, Lagopus muta japonica, is an endangered bird belonging to the family Phasianidae, order Galliformes, and inhabits only alpine areas of Japan. In conservation efforts for these birds, two Eimeria spp., E. uekii and E. raichoi, were frequently detected. Here, we examined cross-transmission of the parasites to other bird species to characterize their infectivity as well as the development of experimental bird models to contribute to conservation programs by the oocyst transfer. Consequently, among the examined eight bird species (chickens, Japanese pheasants, turkeys, chukar partridges, quails, helmeted guineafowls and ducks), only turkeys (family Phasianidae, order Galliformes) could be infected with E. raichoi. However, the number of oocysts per feces was relatively low, and few parasites in the intestinal mucosa could be found by histopathological analyses. These results might indicate that E. uekii and E. raichoi are highly adapted to Japanese rock ptarmigans that inhabit the alpine zone although further studies are anticipated.

PATHOGENS IN QUAILS OF THE TRANS-PECOS ECOREGION OF TEXAS.

Texas quail populations have declined over the past few decades. While habitat loss has been identified as the primary cause, it has been speculated that pathogens may also play a role in this decline. To help address this, we collected scaled quail, Callipepla squamata, Gambel's quail, Callipepla gambelii, and Montezuma quail, Cyrtonyx montezumae, from across the Trans-Pecos ecoregion of Texas via hunter-harvest. Quail samples were then necropsied to document pathogens not previously recorded in the host species. Pathogens were submitted to the Texas A&M University Veterinary Medicine Diagnostic Lab (TVMDL), where parasite identification and histopathological analyses were conducted. From this, we identified several parasites that had never been documented in the quails of the Trans-Pecos ecoregion of Texas. This study was the first to document Mycobacterium sp. and Sarcocystis sp. in scaled quail, Subulura sp. and Physaloptera sp. in Montezuma quail, and Oxyspirura petrowi and Aulonocephalus pennula in a Texas Gambel's quail.

First Documentation of Nematode Dispharynx sp. in Scaled Quail.

Quail populations in the United States have been declining for several decades, and the role that parasites may be playing in this decline is not well understood. The goal of this study was to document novel parasites that inhabited the scaled quail, Callipepla squamata, of the Trans-Pecos ecoregion of Texas. To do this, quail were collected by hunter-harvest, night-netting, and funnel-trapping and were necropsied in the laboratory to determine the parasites they hosted. After analyzing 386 birds, we identified Dispharynx sp. in one of the samples. This specimen is the first to be officially documented in scaled quail.

Quill mite infestation of rock ptarmigan Lagopus muta (Aves: Phasianidae) in relation to year and host age, sex, body condition, and density.

A total of 1209 ptarmigan were examined for Mironovia lagopus, including 721 juvenile birds (ca. 3 months old) and 488 adult birds (15 months or older). A total of 88 birds or 7.3% (n = 1209, 95% cl 5.9-8.9%) were infested with M. lagopus. There was an age difference in prevalence of infection, and more adults (10.7%, n = 488, 95% cl 8.2-13.7%) than juveniles (5.0%, n = 721, 95% cl 3.6-6.8%) were infested. There was a significant age effect in the mean intensity index, and adult birds had more advanced infestations compared with juvenile birds. There were no significant changes in either the interannual prevalence of infection or the mean intensity index of infection. Of the feather types inspected, there was no age-related difference in selection of feathers, nor was there any preference of mites for any one of the inspected feather types. Body dispersants were all adult females. There was an age-related difference in mean intensities of infection of body dispersants; it was higher in adult birds. The methods used to determine presence or absence of M. lagopus were not 100% accurate especially for juvenile hosts, and this at least partly explains the difference in prevalence among age groups. There was no relationship between host body condition or host density and infection by M. lagopus.

[Helminth fauna in a semi-arid host species - scaled quail (Callipepla squamata)].

Helminths were examined from 145 scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) collected during the 2012-2013, 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 hunting seasons from a semi-arid region of Texas that spans four ecoregions. Helminth infracommunities were species poor, averaging 1.7 (range 1-4) species. Six species occurred within the component community of which one (Oxyspirura petrowi) is known to be pathogenic to quail. Aulonocephalus pennula was most abundant (9991 individuals, 95% of total) followed by O. petrowi (391 individuals, 4%). Each of the remaining four species was rare (≤21% prevalence) and contributed few individuals (<1%). In the High Plains ecoregion, prevalence of O. petrowi was higher in host collections made during the 2013-2014 hunting season than either hunting seasons 2012-2013 or 2014-2015 and was higher in the High Plains ecoregion than the Edwards Plateau ecoregion during the 2013-2014 hunting season. Mean abundance of A. pennula and O. petrowi was higher in scaled quail from the High Plains ecoregion than the Edwards Plateau ecoregion. Our results provide new information about helminth fauna in scaled quail, persistence of indirect lifecycle helminth species within a semi-arid region, and the occurrence of pathogenic helminth species within this host species.

Elevated parasite burdens as a potential mechanism affecting northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) population dynamics in the Rolling Plains of West Texas.

Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) are a highly sought-after game bird in the Rolling Plains of West Texas. Unfortunately, bobwhite populations in this area are subject to dramatic fluctuations and have been steadily decreasing over the past several decades. While many factors have been investigated as potential mechanisms of cyclic and declining bobwhite numbers, the effect of parasites on bobwhite populations has historically been undervalued. Between December 2017 and February 2018, we received 21 hunter-shot bobwhite from Garza and Mitchell counties in Texas and found peak caecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula) and eyeworm (Oxyspirura petrowi) burdens averaging 599 and 44, respectively. These represent the highest average parasite loads we have documented in bobwhite from the Rolling Plains thus far and are coincident with widespread reports of declining bobwhite abundance. These elevated infections also followed a high point in bobwhite populations in the Rolling Plains, and our observations of infection dynamics during this time reflect other instances of potential parasite-induced host mortality. While the sample discussed in this communication is small, our findings highlight the need for additional research into how parasites may affect bobwhite population fluctuations in this region.

Mesocestoides sp. in Wild Northern Bobwhite ( Colinus virginianus) and Scaled Quail ( Callipepla squamata).

Mesocestoides spp. have a cosmopolitan distribution with zoonotic potential. Mesocestoides tetrathyridia were found under the pericardial sac, on the surface of the crop, and in the peritoneal cavity of a hunter-harvested Northern Bobwhite ( Colinus virginianus) and a Scaled Quail ( Callipepla squamata) collected during the 2016-17 quail hunting season in northwest and southern Texas, US respectively. Molecular analysis indicated that the tetrathyridia from the birds likely belonged to an undescribed species and are identical to pretetrathyridium stages recently found in Scincella lateralis skinks in Oklahoma. This is the first report of Mesocestoides from North American birds.

Coligranulomatosis (Hjärre and Wramby's disease) reconsidered.

Coligranulomatosis (Hjärre and Wramby's disease) is considered to be a disease of chickens, turkeys and partridges that occurs sporadically in individual, adult birds. Therefore, the condition is not of economic importance, but is of interest due to the similarity of its lesions to those of tuberculosis. In a number of cases the disease could be reproduced by inoculation via artificial routes of granuloma homogenate or Escherichia coli bacteria isolated from the lesions. Oral inoculations always failed. Occasionally, also serious outbreaks of granuloma disease have been reported in chickens, turkeys and quails. E. coli bacteria were either not isolated or isolated, but the disease could not be reproduced with the isolates, which means that the essence of Koch's postulates was not fulfilled. Also other evidence of causality was not presented. Therefore, these disease cases might have been wrongly diagnosed as coligranulomatosis. Instead they may have been caused by Tetratrichomonas gallinarum, a parasite, which has the ability to induce severe granulomatosis in chicken flocks as has been shown recently. It is concluded that whenever severe granuloma disease is observed in poultry flocks at a large scale and is thus economically relevant, T. gallinarum should be included and rank high in the list of differential diagnoses.

Eyeworm infections of Oxyspirura petrowi, Skrjabin, 1929 (Spirurida: Thelaziidae), in species of quail from Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, USA.

Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and Scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) have been declining steadily throughout much of their historical range over the past few decades. Even the Rolling Plains of Texas, historically rich with wild quail and one of the last remaining quail strongholds, has been suffering a population decline, most notably since 2010. Gambel's quail (Callipepla gambelii) have also been experiencing their own decline throughout their respective range, but not as significant as that of other species of quail. Eyeworms (Oxyspirura petrowi) in quail have been recognized for years but not thoroughly studied until recently. New research reveals that O. petrowi infection can cause inflammation, oedema, and cellular damage to the eye of the quail host. The objective of this research was to better understand the prevalence of the eyeworm infection in different quail species, expand on known distribution, and determine if there is a relationship between location and species infected with eyeworms. Northern bobwhite, Scaled quail and Gambel's quail were hunter-donated from one county within Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, and examined for the prevalence, mean abundance and mean intensity of eyeworm infection from November 2013 to February 2014. Quail from every location were found to have individuals with a varying degree of eyeworm infection. This is the first study to document eyeworm infection in Gambel's quail and in quail in New Mexico and Arizona, and reports the highest eyeworm infection found in Northern bobwhite and Scaled quail.

Multiyear Survey of Coccidia, Cryptosporidia, Microsporidia, Histomona, and Hematozoa in Wild Quail in the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of Texas and Oklahoma, USA.

We developed nested PCR protocols and performed a multiyear survey on the prevalence of several protozoan parasites in wild northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas and Oklahoma (i.e. fecal pellets, bird intestines and blood smears collected between 2010 and 2013). Coccidia, cryptosporidia, and microsporidia were detected in 46.2%, 11.7%, and 44.0% of the samples (n = 687), whereas histomona and hematozoa were undetected. Coccidia consisted of one major and two minor Eimeria species. Cryptosporidia were represented by a major unknown Cryptosporidium species and Cryptosporidium baileyi. Detected microsporidia species were highly diverse, in which only 11% were native avian parasites including Encephalitozoon hellem and Encephalitozoon cuniculi, whereas 33% were closely related to species from insects (e.g. Antonospora, Liebermannia, and Sporanauta). This survey suggests that coccidia infections are a significant risk factor in the health of wild quail while cryptosporidia and microsporidia may be much less significant than coccidiosis. In addition, the presence of E. hellem and E. cuniculi (known to cause opportunistic infections in humans) suggests that wild quail could serve as a reservoir for human microsporidian pathogens, and individuals with compromised or weakened immunity should probably take precautions while directly handling wild quail.

Experimental final hosts of Metagonimus hakubaensis (Trematoda: Heterophyidae) and their suitability to the fluke.

Seven laboratory mammal and bird species were orally inoculated with 200-1,000 encysted Metagonimus hakubaensis metacercariae that had been isolated from naturally infected lampreys (Lethenteron reissneri) captured in Aomori Prefecture. At 8 and 15 days post-infection, adult flukes were recovered from all of the laboratory animals tested, and therefore, hamster, rat, mouse, dog, cat, chicken and quail were considered as final hosts of M. hakubaensis. Recovery rates of the fluke were higher in dogs and hamsters than in cats, rats, mice, chickens and quails. The flukes recovered from dogs and hamsters showed increased body length and higher fecundity than those recovered from the other hosts. These results indicate that the suitability of dogs and hamsters for M. hakubaensis infection is higher than that of the other laboratory animals.

Three new quill mite species of the genus Neoaulonastus Skoracki (Acari: Syringophilidae) parasitizing passerines in Tanzania.

Three new species of the genus Neoaulonastus Skoracki, 2004 found inside the quills of the body feathers are described: N. tanzanicus sp.nov. from Euplectes axillaris (Smith) (Passeriformes: Ploceidae), N. quelea sp.nov. from Quelea quelea Linnaeus (Ploceidae) and N. granatina sp. nov. from Granatina ianthinogaster Reichenow (Estrildidae). All avian hosts were captured in Tanzania. Key to Neoaulonastus species is proposed.

[Role of birds in the epizootology of trichinosis in arctic marine mammals].

Studies were conducted to investigate viability and preservation of the invasive properties in the larvae of reference (T2) and arctic strains of Trichinella nativa after their passage through the avian digestive system. It is shown that there is a rapid expulsion of the bulk of helminths due to the fact that quail intestinal cells secrete abundant mucus in response of parasite infestation. The environmentally deposited heminths preserve their infestative properties for a long time, suggesting the mechanical transmission of trichinosis by birds to marine animals (fishes, crustacean, and pinnipeds).

Helminth community of scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) from western Texas.

Forty-eight scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) were collected during August 2002 at Elephant Mountain Wildlife Management Area in Brewster County, Texas, and examined for helminths. Eight species of helminths were found (5 nematodes and 3 cestodes), representing 2,811 individuals. Of these species, Gongylonema sp., Procyrnea pileata, and Choanotaenia infundibulum are reported from scaled quail for the first time. Prevalence of Aulonocephalus pennula, Gongylonema sp., Oxyspirura petrowi, Physaloptera sp., P. pileata, C. infundibulum, Fuhrmannetta sp., and Rhabdometra odiosa was 98, 2, 56, 4, 60, 2, 25, and 35%, respectively. Aulonocephalus pennula numerically dominated, accounting for 88% of total worms. Statistical analyses were performed on the 5 species with > or = 25% prevalence using the after-hatch-year host sample (n = 38). Prevalence of P. pileata was higher (P = 0.049) in females than in males and higher (P = 0.037) in the sample collected from the site that had spreader dams (berms 1-2 m high and 4-55 m long constructed in varying sizes to catch and retain rainfall) than the control site (no spreader dams). Higher rank mean abundance of A. pennula and O. petrowi (P = 0.0001 and P = 0.0052, respectively) was found in the host sample collected from the site that had spreader dams than the control site. A host gender-by-collection site interaction (P = 0.0215) was observed for P. pileata. Findings indicate that scaled quail are acquiring indirect life cycle helminths in arid western Texas habitats.

Role of California (Callipepla californica) and Gambel's (Callipepla gambelii) quail in the ecology of mosquito-borne encephalitis viruses in California, USA.

Gambel's and California quail were infected repeatedly whenever western equine encephalomyelitis virus (WEEV), St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), and (WNV) West Nile virus were active during summer in California. The timing of virus appearance and quail infection coincided well with the appearance of chicks in nature, leading us to hypothesize that large coveys containing these non-immune birds could be important in focal virus amplification in rural settings. However, experimental infection studies with chicks, juveniles, and adults of both quail species using sympatric strains of WEEV, SLEV, and WNV indicated that only immature birds were competent hosts for WEEV, producing viremias sufficiently elevated to efficiently infect Culex tarsalis mosquitoes. Quail were less competent hosts for WNV and were incompetent for SLEV. Large populations of quail that frequently are infected with SLEV or WNV, but produce low to moderate viremias, may serve as dead end hosts for these viruses. Due to their abundance and repeated infection, these birds may attenuate virus amplification in rural areas of California and possibly could be one reason why WNV epidemics seem to occur more frequently in urban and periurban than in rural landscapes.

Infectivity of Blastocystis isolates from chickens, quails and geese in chickens.

The infectivity of six Blastocystis isolates obtained from two domestic chickens, two Japanese quails and two domestic geese, were examined in 1-week-old male chicks. All six isolates were able to infect the chicks via the intracecal inoculation of 1x10(6) cells of cultured organisms. Since the infected chicks discharged many cysts in their feces, the infectivity of the concentrated cysts in chicks was compared among three isolates from different bird species. The CK86-1 and QQ93-3 isolates, which were obtained from a chicken and a quail, respectively, were successfully infected in chicks by orally inoculating with 1x10(2)-1x10(6) cysts. On the other hand, the AC03-1 isolate from a goose required more cysts to infect the chicks, from 1x10(3) cysts to 1x10(6) cysts. In addition, when an uninfected normal chick was housed with five experimentally inoculated chicks with cysts of the QQ93-3 isolate, the normal chick became infected, indicating the fecal-oral transmission of the cyst form among the birds. These results show that the transmission of Blastocystis infection occurs easily between the same or different bird species. Therefore, the proposal of new Blastocystis species on the basis of different avian host species is problematic.

Effect of temperature on the development of Culiseta melanura (Diptera: Culicidae) and its impact on the amplification of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus in birds.

Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus (EEE) is perpetuated in a maintenance cycle that involves Culiseta melanura (Coquillett) as the enzootic vector and passerine birds as the amplifying hosts. Amplification of virus in any given year requires an influx of nulliparous Cs. melanura in the presence of susceptible avian hosts. We conducted laboratory experiments at constant temperatures from 10 to 34 degrees C to develop thermal heat summation models to predict emergence in nature. Embryonic development progresses slowly at 10 degrees C, and the time to eclosion decreased significantly as temperatures increased to 28 degrees C. High temperature were lethal and eggs failed to hatch at 32 degrees C. The thermal minimum (t0) for embryonic development was 9.38 degrees C, and 38.46 degrees-days (DD) were required for egg hatch. The time for larval development decreased with increasing temperatures. Cs. melanura larvae develop in subterranean habitats (crypts) where water temperatures remain below 20 degrees C throughout the summer. Under controlled conditions, egg hatch to emergence took 8 mo at 10 degrees C, 3 mo at 16 degrees C, and 1 mo at 22 degrees C. The thermal minimum for larval development (t0) was 8.5 degrees C, and 467.29 DD were required from eclosion to adult emergence. Our findings indicate that Cs. melanura is well suited to develop in cold water crypts where the larvae are collected most frequently. The mosquito appears to be bivoltine in the northeast with an overwintering generation of larvae that emerges as a spring brood of adults and a summer generation of larvae that emerges in fall. Higher than normal water temperatures hasten development of the summer generation and increase the probability for amplification of EEE by bringing large numbers of nulliparous mosquitoes into contact with recrudescing virus for subsequent transfer to the growing population of susceptible juveniles. Water temperatures in the crypts also may regulate the northern limit for virus amplification each year.

Population dynamics of immature Amblyomma maculatum (Acari: Ixodidae) and other ectoparasites on meadowlarks and northern bobwhite quail resident to the coastal prairie of Texas.

A survey of ectoparasites from 219 meadowlarks conducted during 2 consecutive fall-winter periods in a coastal prairie found immature Amblyomma maculatum Koch to be the most abundant parasite. Peak larval infestations occurred in December with 80-100% of collected birds infested and with a monthly mean of up to 34 larvae per bird. Peak nymphal infestations occurred in February or March with 95-100% of birds infested and with a monthly mean of up to 11 nymphs per bird. Seasonal dynamics of these stages offered possible insight into the persistence of A. maculatum in an area long infested with the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren. Four other species of ticks also were collected but in substantially lower numbers; Amblyomma cajennense (F.), Amblyomma inornatum (Banks), Haemaphysalis chordeilus (Packard), and Haemaphysalis leporispalustris (Packard). This appears to be the 1st host record of A. cajennense from meadowlarks. A collection of 17 northern bobwhite quail indicated that most of these birds were infested with A. maculatum but at a lower level than meadowlarks. The collections of 2 species of Mallophaga from meadowlarks and 4 species from the northern bobwhite quail are discussed.

Human toxocariasis and the visceral larva migrans syndrome: correlative immunopathology.

The surface of T. canis is now recognized as a dynamic structure which turns over quite rapidly and serves as a renewable source of large quantities of antigen(s). The major host responses to these antigens include a marked eosinophilia and hyperglobulinemia. Both of these responses are apparently ineffective at ridding the body of infective larvae. Both eosinphils and IgE antibodies are manifestations of the Th2 subset of T helper cells and the cytokines that they secrete. Further, there is reason to believe that the antigens released from T. canis larvae favor the induction of this cellular population. Finally, there is mounting evidence that the chronic production of parasite antigen and its continued stimulation of the host immune system with a concomitant production of eosinophils can lead to a permanent alteration of the normal organization of the cardiopulmonary system. In the absence of any well-documented drugs capable of killing infective larvae, it would seem that immunological intervention may offer the only way to minimize or neutralize this 'gift from man's best friend'. This chapter was not intended to be an exhaustive review of the literature pertaining to toxocariasis. Several other recent publications will hopefully fulfill the need for more detailed information on the biology of this organism and the clinical spectrum of the disease it produces [16, 138-140]. Finally, a MEDLARS search of the current medical literature should bring anyone up to speed in a very short time.